History of Lace | Women and Needlework in the Workforce | Symbolism of Lace

Rosa Elena is a master lacemaker. In addition to being part of the long lacemaking tradition of her hometown of Moca, Puerto Rico, she claims a place in a much larger, much longer tradition of Spanish and European lacemaking.

History of Lace

"Lace Makers" by Laureano Barrau. From La Illustración española

The word "lace" comes from the Latin word, laqueus meaning "noose," and is related to the old French word for lace which is lassis or lacis. There are two types of lace: point, which is made using a needle, and bobbin (pillow) lace.

Both styles of lace feature different types of pieces: straight lace, which is a pattern made in a continuous process; and part lace, which is composed of separate patterns joined together. However lace can also be made using a crochet hook or a tatting shuttle, though these styles do not use as fine a thread, and therefore are not as delicate in appearance, a hallmark of what is called "true lace."

Bobbin lace most likely developed from a technique called passaments, ornamental braids, ribbons, and precious metals woven on looms or long cushions with pins were used to keep the threads in place. To keep the threads from tangling they were wound on weights made of lead, bone, or wood. Bobbin lace (which also happens to be called bone lace) uses all these materials as well.

The origins of bobbin lace in Europe go back to the Middle Ages in Flanders (the northern region of Belgium) where it is known as kant (border or edge), since lace began as a way to secure the edges of fine material from fraying, as well as giving it a decorative border.

Rembrandt's painting, Portrait of a Woman, shows Flemish bobbin lace.

Bobbin lace appears in many 16th century Dutch and Flemish portraits. The wide collars and cuffs ruffled in lace were the epitome of sophistication and wealth. Spain controlled Belgium in the 16th century, so the art probably traveled to Galicia, Spain, in that period, and later from Spain to Puerto Rico.

Although lace was an upper-class luxury, it was generally made by the lower classes. By the mid-16th century lacemaking had spread throughout Europe and the British Isles. Since it was made by hand and was very time consuming, lace was very expensive and regarded as a luxury item.

Bobbin lace was brought to Puerto Rico from Spain, where it had thrived in major commercial markets as well as a cottage industry in Galicia, Castilla, and Catalonia. In Spain, lace is called encaje, because it was worked on separately and then joined to material (the Spanish word for "join" is encajar).

Although lacemaking may have been a cottage industry in Spain, in Puerto Rico mostly the middle and upper classes—whose daughters could afford the lessons and supplies made lace.

Women and Needlework in the Workforce

By 1915 U.S. clothing manufacturers had created a needlework industry (labores de aguja or tejidos) throughout Puerto Rico. The needlework including sewing and embroidery.

By using women and children as a labor force, manufacturers took advantage of disenfranchised members of society. Companies benefited by setting up in Puerto Rico because one, Puerto Rican companies weren't required to recognize or negotiate with unions and two, companies could pay women and children less with no fear of retribution.

Along with their daily work in factories, women would receive pre-cut fabric from contractors to work on at home. All sewing and embroidery was done by hand and then shipped to department stores in New York City.[Menkart: 1990: 72]

In New York City, the outlook for Puerto Rican women wasn't much improved. Although they migrated to the U.S. mainland for economic opportunities, the few employment options open to Puerto Rican women when they arrived were in domestic help and needlework. Both fields employed large numbers of the migrants.

In the 1920's Puerto Rican women became a major segment of the New York City garment industry's labor force. They replaced Jewish and Italian women workers in the trades of dressmaking, accessories and children's clothing. By 1937 the International Ladies Garment Workers Union had more than 2,000 Puerto Rican members.

After World War I, the cultivation of a domestic lace-and needlework industry became especially important in the U.S. because there was a halt to the export of these materials from Europe. Although Puerto Rican women in the U.S. were limited in their employment options, they made the best of the situation. Not only did many of these women work as seamstresses in factories but, as in Puerto Rico, many worked at home generating piecework. This piecework helped to supplement their family's income and took care of domestic duties.

Symbolism of Lace

The mythological conenctions between weaving, language, and creation are evoked in creation myths from around the world and in classical mythology, in which the weaver—or the spinner as spider—has a role in the creation and maintenance of the world. Puerto Rican visual artist Antonio Martorell says, "I thought about the lacemakers of Puerto Rico, about our traditional mundillo which is both 'bobbin lace' and 'little world' in Spanish, and that gave me the key. We always come back to the word—from the image to the word, from the word, to the image, and it really is a mundillo, a little world. And that world is always shifting and shrinking, becoming 'unlaced.'"

Duirng the Middle Ages, lace symbolized sacredness for Christians. The Roman Catholic Church was the principal consumer for lace for veils and cloths used during services, as well as robes that adorned saints' statues. During the 16th and 17th centuries, clothes with lace decoration became fashionable for men and women among the European nobility. Merchants and members of the upper classes wore fanciful lace for portraits by artists such as Rembrandt (1606-1669), one of the most famous Dutch painters. His 1635 painting, Portrait of a Woman, shows Flemmish bobbin lace. The lace in the paintings tells us a lot about the times and how the person in teh painting may have lived. This woman was most likely from the prosperous merchant class.

Today handmade lace remains rare, but machine made lace is common. Lace is now considered feminine and no longer adorns men's clothing. Often we associate lace with rituals such as a christening or a bris, quinceañeras, and weddings. Linens trimmed with lace, such as tablecloths or pillowcases, often mean there is a special occasion or honored guest. Lacemakers play a very important role in the creation of meaning during rites of passage.

References:
Menkart, Deobrah and Cathy A. Sunshine. 1990. Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico. Network of Educators in the Americas: Washington, DC., pp72.

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